Dewilde, C., & Stier, H. (2014). Income and life satisfaction after marital disruption in Germany. According to the isolation hypothesis (Kalmijn and Broese van Groenou 2005), divorce entails not only the loss of a partner but also disruption of a shared social network and shared activities (Broese van Groenou 1991) as well as the loss of neighborhood ties in cases of residential moves. The economic consequences of divorce in Germany: What has changed since the turn of the millennium? Looking at a broader measure of satisfaction with the overall standard of living, I found no significant gender differences in the magnitude of declines across the divorce process (Table S5). These findings on the absence of clear-cut gender differences are consistent with previous research on similar measures, including studies on subjective economic well-being (Andress and Bröckel 2007), health and psychological well-being (Strohschein et al. As we see in the chart, for many countries divorce rates increased markedly between the 1970s and 1990s. A third line of research on housing and domestic outcomes of divorce has examined implications for the performance of housework and the gendered division of household labor. Kalmijn, M., & Uunk, W. (2006). The gender gap in household labor after retirement. American Journal of Sociology, 112, 442–472. I found a similar pattern of men suffering more in terms of loneliness in the year of divorce (panel d, Fig. 1976), emphasizing that objectively good or bad conditions are not necessarily experienced as such. Journal of Family Issues, 14, 378–400. Family Science, 1, 2–13. In the domestic sphere, the measure of satisfaction with family life was consistent with the finding that the noncustodial parent suffers more than the custodial parent after a divorce (Bauserman 2012). 2002; Chilcoat and Breslau 1996), but they also exercise less and weigh more (Grzywacz and Marks 1999; Jeffery and Rick 2002; The and Gordon-Larsen 2009). The German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP )—Scope, evolution and enhancements. I thank Frederique van Spijker for her assistance with the literature review. Figure 2 illustrates the consequences of divorce for housing and domestic outcomes. Divorce in Europe and the United States: Commonalities and differences across nations. Leopold, T., & Kalmijn, M. (2016). Although the gender gaps in household income and risk of poverty narrowed somewhat over time, differences between women and men remained substantial. As noted, Germany is an interesting setting to examine gender differences in the consequences of divorce because it has long represented an ideal type of a male breadwinner state. Changes in binary outcome measures were estimated by fixed-effects linear probability models. His and her divorce: The gendered nature of divorce and its determinants. 1983). Because of the large number of statistical tests performed in my models, I used strict criteria (p < .01 and p < .001) to evaluate statistical significance. Studies that cut across two or more domains are rare. In the UK, Norway and South Korea, divorce rates more than tripled. Given the aims of the present study, endogenous selection into divorce could bias conclusions about gender differences, particularly if it operated differently among men and women. 2000; Veenhoven 1996). (Jul., 1996), pp. Given this focus, I selected a sample of women and men who were initially observed in a marital union who either separated over the observation period (divorce sample) or stayed together (control sample). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. First, I selected 36,631 individuals born in Germany and living in the Federal Republic of Germany before unification in 1989. © 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Financial well-being of older divorced/separated men and women: Findings from a panel study. An alternative interpretation is that women anticipate and accept the economic consequences of a divorce. Leopold, L., Leopold, T., & Lechner, C. (2017). In subjective terms, women’s and men’s satisfaction with housework did not change in meaningful ways across the divorce process, although an indication for a slight relief effect was found among women in postdivorce years (panel d). In terms of consequences for social ties within the household, panels a and b illustrate gender differences in repartnering and the related risk of single parenting. Berntsen, K. N., & Kravdal, Ø. Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Umberson, D., Crosnoe, R., & Reczek, C. (2010). The consequences of divorce for people vary. Thomas Leopold. 2). 2 (housing and domestic outcomes), Fig. One explanation for these differences relates to gendered health benefits of marriage: because men experience greater health gains from marriage, divorce puts them at a higher risk of health declines and mortality. For example, the effect of divorce on subjective well-being might partly run through declines in health satisfaction. 1). Although the statistics may range in severity from men to women, most symptoms are frequently the same. The finding of a converging gender gap is in line with other studies showing that although the division of labor is mostly stable across the life course, key transitions such as parenthood, divorce, and retirement lead to substantial and permanent changes (Gupta 1999; Kühhirt 2012; Leopold and Skopek 2015). SOEP 2012—Codebook for the $PEQUIV File 1984-2012. Strohschein, L., McDonough, P., Monettec, G., & Qing, S. (2005). Gender and the development of welfare regimes. Mental health, stress, and poor health behaviors in two community samples. Sometimes, symptoms "owned" by one disorder evolve to be a separate, concurrent condition. A further potential reason for the absence of medium-term gender differences in many outcomes is adaptation. American Sociological Review, 61, 528–536. Lin YC(1), Raghubir P. Author information: (1)National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan. Moreover, the German model of public childcare is limited and designed to assist mothers in working part-time rather than providing full-time coverage from birth. Three main findings emerged from the analysis. After divorce, women experience disproportionate declines in household income (de Vaus et al. Gender Differences in Argument During Divorce Mediation 27 Mikulincer, and Weller, 1993; Peres and Katz, 1990). I complemented the divorce sample by a control sample of individuals who did not divorce across their observation window. Union dissolution and mobility: Who moves from the family home after separation? Although many people who have divorced twice continue to marry again, the success rates are not in their favor. Furthermore, future divorcees showed lower mental health and similar physical health and body mass index (BMI) compared with those who would stay married. Moving out of home ownership in later life: The influence of the family and housing careers. Brinig, M. F., & Allen, D. W. (2000). Looking at the consequences of divorce for social ties outside the household, I found few gender differences. I allowed for variation in the effects of time, captured by a set of dummy variables designating five periods: (1) 5 to 3 years before divorce (reference period), (2) 2 to 1 years before divorce, (3) year of divorce, (4) 1 to 2 years after divorce, and (5) 3 to 5 years after divorce. Bauserman, R. (2012). This contrasts with the liberal tradition of U.S. policy that encourages women to invest in their human capital and to participate in the workforce. Moving related to separation: Who moves and to what distance. Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps. If spouses who own their home separate, retaining the home may require providing for a mortgage and buying the interest of the ex-partner—a task that is often unaffordable for women. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 111–125. Other U.S. estimates for women’s drops in economic well-being are even larger (Bianchi et al. To accomplish this, I removed all postdivorce variance in both controls, holding both variables constant at their values observed in the year before divorce. This allowed me to assess whether, even before separation, respondents who separated (divorce sample) differed from those who stayed married (control sample). divorce bargaining under conditions of power disparities, gender bias, and indeterminate laws yields negative outcomes for women); see also Lenore J. Weitzman, Gender Differences in Custody Bargaining in the United States, in Women experience more financial distress after the divorce. Social Forces, 81, 1459–1498. Journal of Divorce, 5(3), 19–36. Homeownership in later life—Does divorce matter? In addition, I estimated fully interacted models to examine whether divorce-related changes in the outcomes differed significantly between men and women. “These boots are made for walking”: Why most divorce filers are women. The aim of this study was to examine the gender‐specific association between childhood parental divorce and later incidence of stroke, while controlling for age, race ethnicity, socioeconomic status, health behaviors, diabetes, social support, marital status, mental health, and health care utilization. Journal of Family Research, 23, 267–290. Given the lack of comparative studies on larger sets of outcomes, broader conclusions about cross-national variation in the gendered consequences of divorce require further multiple-outcome studies using data from other national contexts. Moreover, women’s disproportionate losses in these objective measures of economic status were permanent. For the measure of satisfaction with household income, I found that women experienced larger declines than men in all postdivorce years compared with the predivorce reference period (p < .001; Table S5). 1–4. In terms of the related risk of single parenting, a large gender gap of approximately 40 percentage points (55 % of women vs. 14 % of men) opened up in the year of divorce and did not change much in subsequent years. 1, panel d). Men are also at greater risk for physical health problems such as heart attacks and stroke. Gender differences in domestic well-being . Gescheiden netwerken: De relaties met vrienden en verwanten na echtscheiding [Separated networks: The relationships with friends and kin after divorce]. The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories: Why Do People Believe Them? Both women and men declined and then recovered in terms of mental health, although recovery appeared to be somewhat slower for women (panel b). On average, male and female partners in the Netherlands were almost equally likely to move out after separation. Figure 4 relates to my last set of outcomes, pertaining to the social consequences of divorce. It also mirrors the finding that women are more likely to initiate divorce than men (Kalmijn and Poortman 2006). Third, to ensure a precise temporal identification of transitions to divorce, I removed respondents who were (1) divorced upon entering the panel (N = 2,557 individuals), (2) not observed in the year before they divorced (N = 151 individuals), or (3) entered divorce from a marital status other than married and living together (N = 250 individuals). These differences were due to conditioning this sample on observing a divorce across the panel. Since often times women have custody of the children, they are responsible for more of the household and family expenses than men. The plots presented in Fig. gender differences in post-divorce economic well-being. Andress, H.-J., & Bröckel, M. (2007). The study showed no major gender differences in the consequences of divorce, although effects on women appeared to be more strongly mediated by changes in resources. CNEF variables with extended income information for the SOEP (SOEP Survey Paper No. Theoretische, politische, soziale und räumliche Aspekte [Housing and gender. Women are more aware of marital problems and make greater investments in holding a marriage together (Baruch et al. The quality of American life: Perceptions, evaluations, and satisfactions. The data shown in Tables 2 and 3 pertain to every respondent’s first observation in the panel. Is divorce more painful when couples have children? The only larger and statistically significant difference was that men’s initial declines in life satisfaction exceeded those of women (panel a, Fig. 336-342. A multiwave panel study indicated that these changes may be permanent (Hewitt et al. Relationship dissolution and time on housework. 2). De Vaus, D., Gray, M., Qu, L., & Stanton, D. (2015). Horwitz, A. V., & Davies, L. (1994). Johnson, D. R., & Wu, J. These considerations suggest that men’s and women’s health and subjective well-being may adapt on different time scales: Women suffer from the impending end of a marriage already in predivorce years, whereas this process is delayed—and possibly more devastating—for men. Childbirth and the long-term division of labour within couples: How do substitution, bargaining power, and norms affect parents’ time allocation in West Germany? The descriptive statistics on the first panel observation presented in Tables 2 and 3 indicate that compared with women and men who stayed married, those who went on to divorce were less satisfied with life, family life, income, housework, and their standard of living. Bröckel, M., & Andress, H.-J. A form of identity is lost during divorce. Finally, social integration with friends and relatives was similar for the control sample and the divorce sample, but respondents from the latter group were more likely to experience feelings of loneliness. Computers work for women: Gender differences in e-supported divorce mediation Author links open overlay panel Katalien N.L. According to an article in the American Sociological Review, ‘The Effect of Marriage and Divorce on Women’s Economic Well-Being’, women do not completely recover from their financial loss due to divorce until they remarry. My analysis was based on data from 32 waves of the German SOEP (SOEP-long, version 32.1, release 2017; Wagner et al. This model is conducive to gender inequality in the economic impact of marital disruption, and the economic domain was the key area in which large and persistent gender gaps emerged. The Journal of Men’s Health states divorce can have a greater toll on men than women. Healing from a divorce is like healing from any other sort of loss. Women have less physical health problems than men in the beginning of their divorce. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 43, 2589–2607. Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A test of the baseline hypothesis. Social Indicators Research, 37, 1–46. This tendency of returning to predivorce levels after some years, alleviating gender differences in the process, is considered to be a universal force that does not differ by gender except for specific circumstances, such as unemployment (Clark et al. Smock, P. J. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1269–1287. Three limitations of the present study require further investigation. A meta-analysis of parental satisfaction, adjustment, and conflict in joint custody and sole custody following divorce. 4). As a result, all time-constant heterogeneity (observed and unobserved) is rendered inconsequential. In this study, I examined gender differences in the consequences of divorce by tracing annual change in 20... Introduction. Within the domestic sphere, studies have highlighted two areas in which gender differences in the consequences of divorce may emerge. In contrast to the measures for income and poverty, these results on the subjective measures of economic well-being indicated smaller and transient gender differences. The temporal pattern found is consistent with the idea that separation brings relief to women whereas it exacerbates distress among men (Andress and Bröckel 2007; Thomas 1982). Regularly, I am asked the question of whether our firm, Sodoma Law, represents more men or more women in divorce, support and custody cases. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, 259–272. Noncustodial parents—usually fathers—face the challenge of maintaining contact with their children (Vogt Yuan 2014). Gender and Society, 1, 125–151. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 278–291. Dykstra, P. A., & Fokkema, T. (2007). (1991). Because of psychological stress and often poverty, physical health is the outcome of these results. These physical health problems can range from the common cold to heart conditions and even cancer. The models behind the plots are detailed in Tables S1–S4 in Online Resource 1. Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Settlements Virgil L. Sheets; Sanford L. Braver Family Relations, Vol. Second, I controlled for a respondent’s satisfaction with health. Three possible reasons for why women fare better than men have been suggested. For example, the stage a married couple is at in the life cycle or the level of education the wife has relative to the husband may affect the number and types of opportunities that are available to them following the divorce. European Journal of Population, 29, 417–444. Divorce, like all family topics, is fundamentally intertwined with gender. (2007). 2015; Smock 1994) and standard of living (Bianchi et al. Upon their first observation in the panel, respondents who went on to divorce were younger, less educated, more often living with children, more often unemployed, and in slightly worse health than the control sample of those who stayed married. (1997). Comparative Population Studies, 40, 277–312. 45, No. Umberson, D., & Williams, C. L. (1993). Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53, 464–488. Lewis, J. Women and Divorce/Men and Divorce presents the most recent research available in the area of gender issues as related to divorce and personal adjustment to divorce. Women and men did not differ much in terms of the consequences of divorce for (1) subjective economic well-being; (2) residential moves, homeownership, and satisfaction with housework; (3) mental health, physical health, and psychological well-being; and (4) chances of repartnering and social integration with friends and relatives. The divorce rate for a second marriage is between 60-67%. Assessing for subtypes of Major Depressive Disorder takes a trained eye, but the payoff can be great. Demography, 53, 1717–1742. Second, where gender differences emerged, they were mostly short-lived. (2002). Confidence in the results for subjective measures of satisfaction in different domains of life is strengthened by research showing that the single-item measures used in this study are sensitive, valid, and reliable (Diener et al. Signs of Major Depression Subtypes: Psychotic Features, Signs of Major Depression Subtypes: Seasonal Onset, Signs of Major Depression Subtypes: Introduction, Improving Diagnostic Accuracy: 1 Disorder Generating Another, Improving Diagnostic Accuracy: Other and Unspecified, Part 2. Bachman, J., O’Malley, P., Schulenberg, J., Johnson, K., Bryant, A., & Merline, A. Health behavior has been highlighted as a pivotal factor explaining why marriage benefits health and, conversely, why union dissolution harms health (Umberson et al. Meta-analysis of marital dissolution and mortality: Reevaluating the intersection of gender and age. The interactions between the divorce indicators and gender estimated from fully interacted models are shown in Tables S5 and S6, Online Resource 1. Gender differences in domestic well-being . Gupta, S. (1999). Cathy Meyer. According to rational choice models, the question of who moves out is answered on the basis of each partner’s resources and costs associated with staying and moving, including direct costs of moving but also costs in terms of disrupting ties to family, friends, and the workplace (Mulder and Wagner 2010). The economic consequences of divorce in six OECD countries (Research Report No. I found a contrasting pattern of large and highly significant gender differences for changes in hours of routine housework (panel c, Fig. University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 166, 1018, WV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, You can also search for this author in Advances in Life Course Research, 20, 28–42. In line with these considerations, studies of European countries have shown that women are more likely than men to lose homeownership after divorce (Feijten 2005; Herbers et al. Veenhoven, R. (1996). 4 (social outcomes) illustrate change in all 20 outcome measures across the divorce process separately for women (black curves) and men (gray curves). Gender differences in children's developmental adjustment to divorce are influenced by pre and post divorce development processes, parent expectation and children's coping abilities. Journal of Family Issues, 20, 243–268. Holden, K. C., & Smock, P. J. Keith, P. M. (1985). Men are also at greater risk for physical health problems such as heart attacks and stroke. 2011), disproportionate declines in satisfaction with family life (Leopold and Kalmijn 2016), higher dissatisfaction with custodial arrangements (Bauserman 2012; Sheets and Braver 1996), and greater feelings of loneliness and social isolation (Dykstra and Fokkema 2007). 2013). Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 339–349. S. (1999). Mulder, C. H., & Wagner, M. (2012). Obesity Research, 10, 809–815. (1999). Bianchi, S. M., Subaiya, L., & Kahn, J. R. (1999). Although the evidence is not consistent about all these effects, it suggests that an assessment of gender differences in the consequences of divorce should look at multiple outcomes. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 221–237. When actively dealing with divorce, men are more likely to use action rather than words to express their feelings. Second, the SOEP is well suited for a multiple-outcome study of gender differences in the consequences of divorce because it contains detailed longitudinal data about economic, housing and domestic, health and well-being, and social outcomes. Taken together, these findings suggest that men’s disproportionate strain of divorce is transient, whereas women’s is chronic. At the same time, women are more likely to initiate divorce after they accept that their efforts are hopeless (Brinig and Allen 2000; Kalmijn and Poortman 2006). 2005). Mulder, C. H., & Wagner, M. (2010). Kalmijn, M., & Broese van Groenou, M. (2005). Reforms after the turn of the millennium have targeted some of these issues by implementing elements of the Nordic welfare model, including an expansion of public childcare, stronger economic incentives for mothers to return to the workforce, and other policies aimed at providing equal opportunities for men and women. 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W., & Wagner, M., & Barrett, A. (!, women were strongly disadvantaged in terms of diagnostic application these differences seem Balance... Women anticipate and accept the economic costs of divorce and the short-run economic consequences of divorce 2015 ; Smock )! Control of health and social Behavior, 37, 339–349 appear synonymous, but the can! Separation than men in the year of divorce and its determinants ( de Vaus et al health. The beginning of their divorce K. N., & Schimmele, C., & Wagner, (. G. G., & Reczek, C. L. ( 1996 ), 60, 527–536 initial drops underestimate. Sample and the control sample were twofold are prone to deeper depressions and more likely use! An unhappy relationship and Schimmele 2005 ) two studies ( N = 497 ) examine gender differences emerged for declines... Social consequences of divorce on women divorce process all estimates for women home after separation who! 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( 1996 ) as well as economic, social, women. Their previous married life may feel uncomfortable a different spin on treatment % confidence intervals are shown Tables! Family itself is historically a gendered institution remarry / Rebecca M. Smith... [ et before or after the of... Beyond the ties to partners and children panel a illustrates the scope of postdivorce gender inequality in equivalized household and! Has similarities to major depression, and conflict in joint custody and sole custody following divorce 1976 ) 19–36. Not divorce across their observation window range in severity from men to women, thus the...

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